With the increase in issues with the trustworthiness in qualitative research, it has become a necessity for scholars to establish credibility, transferability, dependability, and conformability of their research. Although all the four factors play a vital role, credibility is the foremost factor that builds the trustworthiness of qualitative research. While developing credibility is one side of the story, enhancing the same is other.

Originating in surveying & navigational contexts, triangulation is a practice of utilising multiple data sources & approaches to perform data analysis and improve the credibility of a research. In a word, triangulation is a process of combining several research approaches to study one concept and over the bias & uncertainty in the outcomes of the research.

In research triangulation are of four types:

1. Data triangulation – This process involves data collection from various sources
2. Theoretical triangulation – This type of triangulation involves borrowing theories from one discipline and using them in another discipline
3. Methodological triangulation – Here we use qualitative and quantitative methods to obtain reliable findings
4. Triangulation by investigator – This type of triangulation involves more than one investigator. The data is collected individually and then compared on the basis of types of data collected

As said earlier, triangulation assists in minimising different types of bias encountered in your research process.

• Measurement bias – This kind of bias is caused on the basis of the approach used to gather data. Perhaps the most common form of this is the setting/environment is which the research is conducted. For instance, peer pressure on focus group participants. Triangulation lets you combine group and individual research methods to reduce the measurement bias. Consider another example where research subjects tend to explain what they heard. Here triangulation combines observational and self-reported to solve the issue.
• Sampling bias – This type of bias occurs when only few convenient population under study is covered. However, some of the research approaches makes it easier to cover a good amount of population. For example, telephonic interview for interstate research subjects can be a substitute for one-to-one interview with local subjects. Likewise, online survey makes it easier to include geographically distant research participants. Triangulation combines the strength of these approaches to ensure complete coverage of the population.
• Procedural bias – Put simply, procedural bias occurs when the research participants experience the same pressure to provide information. For instance, online exit survey may force the participants to answer the questions quickly to complete the survey. Triangulation combines the short with larger engagements to provide participants sufficient time to answer the questions.

Triangulation, although can be used in various scenarios, it is most commonly used:

1. When different sources are used
2. Controversial aspect of research which needs critical assessment
3. Established research method yields limited & frequent wry picture
4. Evaluation of case study of a complex phenomenon

With that said, to achieve triangulation one requires data either from different sources or investigators.

Triangulation can be achieved via:

1. Mixing up different techniques: Combine techniques such as qualitative vs quantitative, self-reported vs facilitated, short vs long engagement, individual interview vs focus group, etc. to balance out each other.
2. Involvement of two or more individuals on a project – Another kind of triangulation can be achieved by involving two or more than two people to make notes, observation, and perform data analysis. This is so because the investigators will have different perspective giving a theoretical framework to analyse data.
3. Layer upon layer – A kind of triangulation can be achieved by conducting research in layers of detail. Begin with broad piece of information, identify major issues, and offer insights to concepts in the next layer. In the second layer focus on narrow area and provide detailed information.

Triangulation is employed for several reasons, of which are:

• To obtain different types of information on a particular issue
• To overcome the weakness of a research method by using the strengths of another method
• To achieve validity and reliability of results

An example for the use of triangulation technique

Consider an example where a research involves studying three crucial concepts. The research problems are (1) access to schooling for women in Pakistan, (2) role of poverty in access to education, and (3) development & implementation of education policies.

For the first research problem, the data was extracted from primary sources such as local leaders, women, & teachers and the data collection tools is interview schedule. For the second research problem, the data was collected from parents, students, and local bodies. For the last research problem, the information was obtained from professors, institutes’ head, and government officers.

Utilisation of various data collection techniques and approaches have led to employ triangulation technique in the research process.

Research methods have limitations such as bias, irrespective of its type. Triangulation is that one technique which not only lets you capture huge amounts of data but also minimise the impact of bias on your study. Leverage triangulation and ensure balanced research process.

Research methods are procedures that span the steps from nonspecific assumptions to detailed approaches of data collection, analysis, and interpretation. These are essentially well-planned, value-neutral and scientific. 

Generally, the research method includes experimental study, focus groups, survey method, numerical schemes, theoretical procedures, etc. However, each study domain demands a specific type of research method. 

For instance, for research that requires investigation of characteristics, opinions or behaviours of a group of people, survey method can be used. 

Whereas, research that demands explanation based on observations, collected facts, and measurements, the experiment research method is used. 

Know more about experiment and survey method  

• Experiment method 

Derived from Latin word ‘experior’ (meaning – attempt), experiment is a systematic approach that tests the hypothesis by performing a procedure under highly controlled conditions. This approach is based on a comparison between two or more variables and is ideal for studying the primary data. Experiment involves manipulating a certain independent variable and determining its effect on a dependent variable. 

For example, you can measure the impact of how water intake on people’s metabolism by letting the experimental group drink 6 glasses of  water per day while letting the controlled group to drink only 3 glasses of water. Their metabolism rates can then be compared after a couple of weeks, and statistical tests such as T-test can be used to validate the results. 

Typically, an experimental research method consists of three types of designs: pre-experimental, true- experimental, and quasi-experimental design.   

1. Pre-experimental design – In this approach, a group(s), is kept under observation after factors for cause & effect are considered.  
2. True-experimental design – Being the most accurate design, this method is used to establish a cause-effect relationship within a group(s). 
3. Quasi-experimental design – Here, the independent variable will be manipulated, but the members of a population are not randomly assigned.

Experimental research design includes key characteristics such as: 

1. Manipulating the independent variable
2. Determining the factors that cause effects
3. Comparison of two or more groups
4. Deciding the extent and nature of the treatment

Experiment research method offers several advantages such as – accurate results, control over variables, determination of cause & effect of a study hypothesis, and can be used in collaboration with other research designs. 

• Survey method 

Derived from Latin word ‘supervidere’ (meaning – to see), survey method, best suited for    descriptive research, studies the opinion, behaviours, attributes and feelings of an individual or a group of people. This process collection of numbered data and statistically analysing responses to the questions in order to test the hypothesis about the nature of relationships within a group. 

For instance, if you are intended to study the happiness levels among employees’ working in a specific organisation. Here the data will be collected through questionnaires, phone calls, Emails, etc. Upon collecting the data regarding the individuals’ perceived emotional states, statistical tests such as getting the weighted mean can be utilised to assess the responses. 

Based on the design, survey research method can be divided into three types of studies: cross-sectional, longitudinal and correlational study. 

1. Cross-sectional study – Defined as observational research type, this study evaluates data of variables gathered at a given point of time across a sample population.
2. Longitudinal study – This method uses repeated or continuous measures to follow certain individuals over an extended period of time ( more often years or decades).
3. Correlational study – This non-experimental design studies two different variables and runs a statistical analysis to determine the relation between the variables without the interference of external variables. 

The significant features of the survey research method include: 

1. Involvement in the process of sampling from a population 
2. Developing instrument for data collection process
3. Collecting data via interviews or questionnaires
4. Acquiring greater response rate

Survey method offers several benefits of which include – primary data collected is easy to analyse, data can be collected at a faster rate and easily, offers precise information, and is flexible. 

Key differences between experiment and survey method 

Choosing the right research method is vital for any research. Hence make sure you understand the requirements of your study and choose the research method accordingly. 

A research method is nothing but a technique of inquiry which proceeds from the underlying philosophical assumptions to research design and data collection. Specific research methods imply various assumptions, skills, research practices and the choice of research approach influences the manner in which the data is collected. 

Among various research methods, the most popular and widely used design is qualitative research. This design consists of many philosophical perspectives and various research methods, of which includes  action research and case study research.

Action Research

Action research is a type of qualitative research, which is adopted by the researcher in order to solve the immediate problem arisen during the particular course of time. It is a way which bridges the gap between educational theory and professional practice by improvising their current practices. This type of research helps the researcher to improvise its current practices and is applied for researching into issues.

The main purpose of action research is to learn through action leading to personal or professional development. It enables researchers not only to suggest appropriate lines of action but also to investigate the actual effects of such actions. Further, this type of research is situation based, is useful in problem-solving and deals with individuals or groups with a common purpose of improving practice.

Action research is conducted in classrooms and organisations, where the practitioner will observe what happens and then identify an issue or problem that they need to address. Further according to the issues, ways to solve the problems are identified and applied by the practitioner in their practices. This approach is applied using qualitative designs to explain what is happening and to understand the effects of some educational intervention. 

Further, this research helps in addressing practical problems and in generating knowledge to produce change.

Methods used in collecting data in action research are:

• Observing individuals or groups
• Using audio and videotape recording
• Using structured or semi-structured interviews
• Taking field notes
• Conducting surveys or questionnaires

Case study

Case study research is more of a qualitative method of research where there is an in-depth study of an individual or a group of individuals. It explores a contemporary prodigy within its real-life context and provides an organised way of observing the events, collecting data, analysing information, and reporting the results.

Further, the case study method focuses on the description or exploration of a particular phenomenon, rather than identifying the cause and effect. This method includes both quantitative and qualitative data and allow the researchers to see beyond statistical results and understand human conditions like illiteracy, poverty, etc. 

Case studies is categorised in 3 ways: exploratory, explanatory and descriptive.

Exploratory case studies explore any event in the data which serves as a point of interest to the researcher. For example, a researcher conducting an exploratory case study on an individual’s learning process may ask questions, such as, “Does a student use any strategies when he learns a text?” This type of question results in further examination of the phenomenon. 

On the other hand, the explanatory case study examines the data carefully and explains the phenomenon occurred in the data.

Descriptive case studies describe the natural phenomena which occur within the data. For example, what are the strategies used by the learner?, etc. 

Case studies are useful as they help the researcher to analyse the data at a small level but there is a  tendency for the researcher to be biased at the time of interpreting the data. 

Methods used in collecting the data in the case study method are:

• Interviews, transcript analyses or protocol 
• An exploration of artifacts.
• A review of documents and archived record
• Direct participant observations
• Field studies

Difference between action research and case study

At times people confuse the action research method with that of case study as both are a little bit similar to each other. But in real-time, they are quite different.

• Action research focuses on solving the immediate problem whereas, case studies focus on a particular phenomenon for a longer period of time.
• Action research method emphasis on solving the problem whereas case study method emphasis on observing, analysing and interpreting a particular phenomenon or scenario.
• Researcher at times can also be the part of the action research whereas in case study researcher don’t take part in the research.

Now that you know the difference between the two approaches, choose the method accordingly and accomplish your research.

Sam’s idea of research was around studying the information architecture decisions of educational websites and their effect on the learning behaviour of the visitors. On the basis of getting clarity on her research data, Sam first figured out that the data be collected from which sources (websites and target users) and then which research methods have to be deployed to get the appropriate answers to the research questions.

Having identified a promising area of interest, a scholar must find out those research questions that have not only been left unresolved but those that have the relevance to contribute meaningfully to the existing theory.

The different types of research gaps that can exist in literature review can be

Sometimes the research question may be answered in the literature review in the relevant area but not in your given domain. For example:

1. The collaborative learning theories that exist in literature bring out the concept that peers make use of each other’s knowledge skill to gradually move in the direction of individual problem solving. In the present context, if one tries to identify the research gap here, it does not specifically talk about how email or long distance communication support collaborative learning? This could take up as a specific gap extracted from the relevant area of research.

Sometimes the question has been asked in the previous studies but the exploration is further needed because of the dynamism in the accepted theory or the technology changes demanding further probing in. For example:

2. A new eye tracking software in the market helps to further identify in detail about the spatial language description directing the judgement of the people. Though there are previous studies on this, but development in new technology merits exploration.

Sometimes the previous research may have limited application of the output derived or may have significant limitations. This could be because of reliability, validity issues of the instrument in use or other limitation that may have caused the limitation to occur. It creates the scope for a replication study to be conducted as a verification study for the existing published research to understand whether the results match or no. For example:

3. An existing research tests whether website content can be accessible and understood sufficiently well across different intellectual capacities. However, it did not take into consideration important variables such as word choice, difficulty of language, word count etc. a new study with incorporation of relevant variables can take out more authentic and applicable results.

Writing an effective research proposal is not as difficult as it seems to be for many research students. If you have the required grasp on your selected topic of research and have done intensive literature review in relation to it, then shaping a proposal should not be a complex task for you. A research proposal is all about presenting your views and approach on the topic. In fact, the harder part is conducting the research itself. However, it is still important to plan well before you come up with a winning proposal that may receive an instant approval.

Stick to institutional guidelines

If your academic institution has provided guidelines about the length and style of a research proposal, then you must stick to those guidelines. Keep your content confined to the given word limit and strive to make it brief and crisp. You should also follow the specific writing style and format for a proposal that has been recommended by your institution.

Cover all basic elements

As a proposal includes several elements, it is critical to cover each element precisely and clearly. When you give an introduction, try to keep it short. However, mention about the problem and its likely contributions to your academic area. It is very important to explain what you are trying to discern through your study. Explain the problem by giving it a context and reflect on its scope by presenting the relevant review of literature. Additionally, make sure to explain your methodology with valid reasons for your selection. Always keep a connection of every section with the problem to be studied.

Take time to complete your proposal

When you need to write a proposal, make sure to give yourself ample time to do this. Do not leave it for the last minute. After doing a thorough literature review and understanding all aspects of your study, sit down to start compiling an effective proposal.